Public Relation Models Essay Example

Public Relation Models Essay The purpose of this essay is to achieve better insight into the different methods of conducting real-life public relations nowadays. Theoretically, several models have been developed to categorize the different types of PR practice/practitioners; analyzing the usage of these models by PR professionals will reveal the extent to which they are valid in real life. Because these models deal with the communication-flow involved in PR, the essay will begin with a basic outline of how human communication works and how it can be applied effectively, using theory from Stappers (1988) and Dervin (1989)- Stappers offers a basic conversation model which describes the information and communication processes, while Dervin discusses the role of audiences in communication. The next step will be to analyze the aforementioned PR models and shortly describe them, starting with Grunig’s (1989) set of models (symmetrical and asymmetrical) and moving on to Van Ruler’s (1997) tested models (the technician, sales manager and intermediary). The final section of the essay will concentrate on real-life examples of how the PR models are applied, related to commercial business and international public relations, provided and examined by Lordan (2006) and Grunig (1993). The examples will include customer input to organizations and the use of Grunig’s models in US politics. We will write a custom essay sample on Public Relation Models specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Public Relation Models specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Public Relation Models specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer A detailed analysis will follow which will lead to the conclusion of how the communication-flow models apply to real life, and how valid each models is today. Communication: how does it work? To generate awareness of the communication process, Stappers created a general communication model. To successfully communicate, the receiver of the message does not only have to receive the information but also understand the meaning of it. Accordingly one can divide the receiver’s tasks into â€Å"phases such as noticing, observing and knowing† (Stappers, 1988, p. ). If one would combine these activities, one can use the term ‘information source’. When the receiver is observing, he or she gains knowledge. This is called the information process – â€Å"it consists of the receiver and the information source† (Stappers, 1988, p. 3). It will become a communication process when the receiver communicates the message to someone else. Within the communication p rocess there is a sender, who supplies another person with a message. A communication process is when a person, the sender, supplies another person with a message. According to Stappers, communication revolves around second-hand experiences (benefiting from other experiences), and also passing (sending) them on, allowing others to benefit from your experiences. This can be considered as an optimistic view of what genuinely happens; one should regard it more as a desirable result of communication. Communication enables us to share each other’s experiences and evolve with them, this is why this model can be seen as a two-way flow of information; one sends, receives and shares. Dervin came up with a similar conclusion to communication (specifically two-way), by discussing the importance of the audience during public communication campaigns. According to Dervin (1989), the audience is not â€Å"an amorphous mass† (p. 20), but rather a group of people who can learn from and teach (through feedback) the sender. If you listen to your audience you can understand what they need and possibly satisfy them (as well as yourself), thus building a bridge to your â€Å"Uses (Helps)† (Dervin, 1989, p. 18) over the gap that would exist if audience feedback was absent. This â€Å"sense-making approach† to communication simply states that two-way communication is superior to one-way communication. Using this basic information on communication-flow, we are able to explain how communication works in the different PR models offered by Grunig and Van Ruler. Grunig’s PR models: Asymmetrical vs. symmetrical communication Grunig has introduced four basic models for public relations. Each model represents the values, goals and behaviours practiced by organizations when they act upon public relations. Grunig (1989) states that the models are â€Å"simplified in the same way that a perfect vacuum or perfect competition are simplified representations in other sciences,† i. e. these models represent clear-cut, ‘perfect’ types of PR practice that may not necessarily be recognized in real life. However Grunig tries to identify and display the underlying reasons for applying a certain theory by a public relation practitioner. Grunig’s models are ‘press agentry/publicity’, ‘public information’, ‘two-way asymmetrical’ and ‘two-way symmetrical’. According to Grunig, these four models simultaneously contain and represent the companies’ inherent values, goals and behavior. The models can be divided in two groups, the distinction of which lies in the communication methods used. Grunig describes that public relation practitioners  follow either an asymmetrical or symmetrical way of communication on which they base  their actions and which determines what kind of relationship an organization has with its publics. If one should examine to which ideology or perception the PR-practitioners act upon it could help to develop further more effective public relations efforts. The ‘press agentry/publicity’ and ‘public information’ models consist of one-way communication whereas the ‘two-way asymmetrical’ and ‘two-way symmetrical’ methods consist of two-way communication. One-way communication revolves around the company communicating to its audience with no feedback. As a dominant current world view, PR is still seen as â€Å"persuasive and manipulative† (Grunig, 1989, p. 40). The first presupposition fits within this world view, which Grunig describes as ‘Press agentry/ publicity’. This model seeks media attention in any way possible for example through product and trade fairs. This model is sometimes associated with propagandistic public relations- the PR focuses mainly on the positives of the organization and its products/services, and it emphasizes on benefiting the company, not the audience/publics, ‘the audience are passive receivers who ought to be â€Å"persuaded or manipulated† (Grunig, 1989, p. 40). ‘Public information’ similarly focuses on publishing positive (yet truthful) information about the given organization; however it is reluctant to disseminate negative information. Grunig states that (in contrast to the first model) this model tends to manipulate the publics unintentionally. For example, bands who participate in the Live Earth concerts have ‘public information’ PR which concentrates on the benefits of fighting global warming, while ignoring the fact that preparing and carrying out the concerts adds a lot to global warming (Vozel, 2007). Both of these one-way communication models are used by PR practitioners to inform the publics about the organization without any research of the publics (Grunig, 1989). The two-way communication models are more complicated in that they involve research of the publics in order to support them as well as the organization. ‘Two-way asymmetrical’ communication uses research to find out what has to be done to satisfy the public while still focusing mostly on benefiting the organization without the changing organizational behavior. Therefore, behavioral change, as Grunig puts it, from the side of the audience is hoped to benefit the organization rather than both involved parties. This model can be seen as manipulative because an organization uses it to satisfy the public mainly for its own good-will. ‘Two-way symmetrical’ communication, similarly to ‘two-way asymmetrical’ communication, involves research of the publics. However, it differs in its purpose- instead of focusing on the benefits of the organization, it emphasises on a mutual understanding between the organization and its publics. Practitioners fine-tune the needs and wants of both the organization and its publics to achieve harmony and find better solutions to problems together (synergy). Organizations using this model are known to bargain and negotiate with their publics and develop strategies of conflict resolutions. According to Grunig (1989) only the ‘two-way symmetrical’ communication model is genuinely symmetrical. In contrast to the other three models, ‘two-way symmetrical’ communication is the only one that does not focus solely of the benefits of the company. ‘Two-way asymmetrical’ communication also involves the publics but tends to use persuasive and manipulative messages to support them, as seen in the ‘press publicity/agentry’ model. Practitioners who use ‘public information’ may also manipulate publics (although it could be unintentional). Furthermore, Grunig (1989) argues that ‘two-way symmetrical’ communication is the best of these models because it is the only one that uses moral and ethical approaches in PR. After identifying and distinguishing the four PR-models, Grunig states why an organisation practices a particular one. He concludes that the reason why a model is applied lies in what he calls the ‘dominant coalition’. This term implies that these models ‘function as a part of an organisation’s ideology’ and become ‘situational strategies’. Grunig also comes to the conclusion that the top management, ‘the power elite’ , (which works separately from the PR practitioners) establishes strategic target publics and subsequently passes this issue to the PR practitioner, who has to accomplish this task in coherence with the ‘organisational culture’. Finally to summarize, it can be said that several ways of practicing public relations can be identified. Reasons why a company chooses to act upon a particular model is strongly determined by its ‘dominant coalition’. Van Ruler’s PR models The following models also deal with the concept ‘two-way symmetrical communication’. Furthermore recent developments will be elaborated. With the outcome of Van Ruler’s research as a basis one could distinguish three models which determine how public relation officers (PROs) regard their role in the profession of PR. This can be distinguished by deriving the underlying views from the given answers by leading PROs in the Netherlands. The three models are: †¢ The Technician, who only wants to accomplish his /her goals. There is no role for the receiver (the public). Sales manager, who focuses on building a positive image of the company, the receiver is passive. †¢ Intermediary, who is responsible for creating and maintaining a closed mutual relationship, between the organisation and its public. The receiver is active. She describes ‘the technician’ as someone â€Å"who is tactically concerned with the production and dissemination of communica tion products† (Van Ruler, 1997, p. 97). She refers to this view as a ‘technical one’ which implies that this person is just â€Å"subservient to the technical demands of the execution of his duties† (Van Ruler, 1997, p. 7). The second view a PRO can have is characterized as ‘sales manager’. Van Ruler (1997) describes it as a synchronization of the behavior of the public with the view of the organization (p. 97). This view can also be characterized as an ‘instrumental one’ meaning that this person is merely following the guidelines and sets up the organizational strategy. ‘The intermediary’ is the last view derived from Van Ruler’s research outcomes. The intermediary regards his or her job in â€Å"building bridges and trying to stand between and organization and publics† (Van Ruler, 1997, p. 97). This perception of the profession includes being interested in some sort of exchange between both, the organization and the publics in order to gain mutual understanding, as Van Ruler describes it. This is why this view can be perceived as a ‘professional’ one meaning that this person is more distant, he or she is like a third party between organization and public who tries to intermediate in order to bring both in ‘ tune’. This identified model is, to some extent, similar to Grunig’s ‘two-way symmetrical way’ of communication. Both models contain many overlapping characteristics. The theoretical framework delivered by Grunig sets up certain values in a particular view. Van Ruler distinguishes similar models, only with different terminology, for example ‘intermediary’ or ‘professional view’ instead of Grunig’s words ‘two-way symmetrical communication’. By using different terminology Van Ruler puts the same process in a different context. Van Ruler differentiates her models and provides additional material to Grunig’s outcome, by stating that while these presuppositions can be easily identified, they cannot be easily found in the practical field of a working PRO. This arouses the question as to whether or not the ‘two-way symmetrical’ method of information is only possible in Grunig’s theoretical framework. This is because Van Ruler, through her research, tried to identify the ‘two-way symmetrical’ way of information in the daily work of selected PROs and was not able to identify it. The communication-flow PR models in modern-day practice: Real-life examples Grunig and Van Ruler described interactions with the publics by using the terms ‘intermediary’ or ‘two-way symmetrical’ flow of communication. Lordan describes these interactions as increases in ‘interactivity’ between a company and the audience by stating the possible benefits as well. He states that the ‘interactivity’ already exists by means of having focus groups or by conducting customer testimonials. However, there is now a movement which is far more comprehensive. Currently, Lordan (2006) has stated: â€Å"customers are being asked for their input in shaping all elements of an organization† (p. 27), especially within the field of communication he adds. Many activities which were handled by communication specialists are now partly determined by the public itself. For instance Lordan (2006) says the Super Bowl commercials, â€Å"are often held up as a barometer of professional communication trends† (p. 27). Nowadays, organizations are asking their customers to shape their message and commercials by letting them develop creative concepts and by involving them in the campaigns. Reasons for this behavior of the consumer according to Lordan can be given with the example of ‘American Idol’, a show where the audience is obliged to vote for the contestants and therefore actively influence the outcome (â€Å"greater excitement†). Another reason is the change in technology, from ‘old media’ such as newspapers and television which â€Å"happen to us† passively to new media like websites or mp3-devices which he states â€Å"demand interactivity- we happen to them. † The willingness to expose themselves can be regarded as an indicator that consumers â€Å"anticipate – even prefer – greater influence in the communication process. † (Lordan, 2006, p. 28) With this Lordan is not referring to the general communication model described by Stappers. The difference is that Stappers refers more to second hand information; he would regard the sending of the message as the communication process. YouTube is also an example of giving evidence for the high demand of being capable to add something to the media, to be interactive. Since YouTube consists of what the user offers. Lardon also says that because of these recent developments PROs fear about their job security. This is due to their job being partly taken over by the audience. Assuming that, more involvement of the target receiver is harming the ‘control’ of the sender. This implies that several views are still predominant, which are also partly characterized in the concepts ‘two-way asymmetrical communication’  (Grunig)  and sales manager (Van Ruler). Even though consumers are enabled to participate, Lordan (2006) argues that the consumers still are warranted. This is because the company still â€Å"reserves the right to select or to refuse the final participants† and that it is still up to the media professionals â€Å"to determine the rules, the access and, in some cases, the outcome† (p. 28). To conclude Lordan (2006) states that, if a PRO has faith in his or her profession, in a manner that he or she sees it as something â€Å"where the goal is mutually beneficial relationships between clients and audiences† (p. 9), the trend of interactivity is a concept which could enable the PROs to improve their performance instead of give away their jobs. The perception of losing control about the intended message is related to Van Ruler’s model ‘sales manager’. Van Ruler describes this model as a view which involves ‘synchronizing’ the public opinion with the organization’s opi nion. So, active influence and power are wanted to be on the side of the organization and not as Lordan (2006) states â€Å"a mutually beneficial relationship† (p. 9). Grunig’s approach can also be taken in to account. Grunig (1989) says that PR departments should work as on ‘open system’ in which there is interaction between the client (organization) and the audience. Grunig named this approach the ‘two-way symmetrical’ flow of information and gave presuppositions which highly influences a company’s behavior. Consequently it can be said that even though Lordan claims that ‘interactivity’ could work with a ‘two way symmetrical approach,’ it is quite different in reality. Namely the concept of the ‘sales manager’, the fear of losing control described by Van Ruler, is dominant. Grunig (1993) follows the idea that the ‘two-way communication’ model is quite rare in real PR practice too, by offering several examples from his analysis on international public relations- e. g. in a campaign for Lithuania, a PR, Bernays, used â€Å"many of the techniques of the public information model† as well as the two-way asymmetrical model; also Grunig (1993) mentions that throughout the 20th century many international clients of the US were supported with asymmetrical PR, â€Å" PR firms will stoop to represent the interests of dictatorships†. Grunig (1993) does suggest a possible reason for this use of PR in politics, â€Å"The majority of public relations practitioners who work for international clients enter the business because of experience in journalism, advertising or politics. Because of this background, they devote most of their efforts to media relations and lobbying typically practicing the press agentry, public information or two-way asymmetrical models of public relations†. Conclusion In this essay we went through a movement from general to specific in order to analyze whether or not the discussed PR models are valid in real-life PR practice. We started off with a basic outline of what desirable communication is (according to Stappers and Dervin), and moved on to describe Grunig’s and Van Ruler’s models and how they use communication, as well as what their similarities and differences are. From this section of the essay it can be concluded that the most preferred and ethical models are the symmetrical models, i. . the two-way symmetrical communication model and ‘the intermediary’. Through our analysis of how PR is used in real-life examples, we saw that while various asymmetric methods are used in commercial business and international PR, the ‘perfect’ symmetrical models are not really valid. A reason for this may be that PR practitioners in real-life are not necessarily educated as PR professionals, but rather come from oth er backgrounds, whether it is advertising, journalism or politics (as mentioned by Grunig, 1993). References

Why They Extend Contest Deadlines

Why They Extend Contest Deadlines I have a writing friend who gets downright angry when a contest extends the deadline. He considers it an insult, or that the editors are looking for specific people who didnt make the deadline. In reality, contests are run Heres how I see it when a contest announces a later deadline for submissions: 1. The obvious. They didnt receive enough quality submissions.   Keep in mind that their reputation is based upon what they publish as a result of contest entries. So, if they extend the deadline in order to obtain better material, is that so wrong? However, if I had entered on time and saw an extended deadline, admittedly, I would interpret that as my work not being acceptable enough. Professionally, however, I see this as the contest not being organized enough to get the word out properly. Just my two cents. 2. They received fewer entries than expected.   Contests like to grow over time. When I ran the FundsforWriters Essay Contest for nine years, the submissions grew in number each year. . . such that I could not manage it any longer and write novels at the same time. That number is representative of a contests success in reaching the masses the talented writers out there. If last year a contest brought in 325 entries, and this year, a week before the deadline, theyve only received 150, something went awry. The contest doesnt want it known that the numbers dropped, so they extend the deadline. 3. They need more money to cover prize money. This reason isnt as common as one might think, but Im sure it happens. Lets say a journal promotes a $1,000 prize and publication. The entry fee is $15. The first prize figure merits a need for 67 entries to break even. Thats not considering the cost of publication and paying a judge . . . maybe advertising. Even in the world of the arts, budgets are a factor. But again, I read this as poor planning. 4. Crisis management.   You never know if something happened that sabotaged the event. Maybe the ads didnt make it out in time. Maybe the judge got sick. A sponsor may have backed out. What if the online entry form was down for a week prohibiting entries? So, you can look at deadline extensions as tricks

Mina O'Reilly at Logan Airport's TSA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mina O'Reilly at Logan Airport's TSA - Essay Example The supervisor under whose jurisdiction the TSO was appointed was Mina O’Reilly. Mina O’Reilly has a very good track record and it is because of her supervision, that Logan airport was declared as the airport of the year. Ludo Sanchez was also a hard-working efficient TSO who not only took his responsibilities seriously but also delivered them with dedication. He had a magical effect on the checkpoint. He was also offered promotion which he denied as he wanted to work as a frontline employee. So Mina O’Reilly had strong faith in his dutifulness and had no doubt in his dedication towards his work. However, the recent security breach has questioned the past notion of Mina O’Reilly for Ludo Sanchez. The security breach took place when Ludo Sanchez made a phone call to his daughter and was telling her to complete her homework on time. The call lasted for just a few minutes, but within this few minutes a man carrying a blue hand bag passed the exit lane to the sterile terminal area without security check. Flights got delayed as the blue bag the man was carrying needed to be identified and checked, so that there is no fear of explosives or hazardous elements on plan. All these delays and confusion occurred just because one security breach for which Ludo Sanchez was responsible. Mina O’Reilly is now the responsible person to take measures against this security breach. Mina O’Reilly Steps against Security Breach of Ludo Sanchez Mina O’Reilly received the detailed feedback from Lead Transportation Security Officer (LTSO). She was the one to decide what next steps to be taken against Ludo Sanchez. Though she had the power to terminate Sanchez immediately for his negligence, but she did not wanted to do it because Sanchez had a very good past performance record, and he was a very dedicated employee of the company. O’Reilly had several options in front of her to deal with the situation, but she had to choose one among them. She can assign Sanchez’s duty to a position which requires lower security, such as the exit lane, but ironically that was the position the security breach took place, when Sanchez was distracted. The second option would be to give him a verbal warning and developing a specific performance development plan for him to improve his performance and attentiveness. Third, option would be to send him for retraining and counseling. These were the probable options that O’Reilly can refer to for deciding her ultimate steps in Sanchez’s case. O’Reilly should be combining the options that she has decided; this means that she should give a verbal warning to Sanchez for his negligence. He should be sent for retraining and counseling, so that the protocols would be explained to him ones more and counseling would stop him from getting discouraged or de-motivated through the mistake that happened because of his negligence (Buchler, 2011, p. 231-233). Model of Employ ment The model of employment of Transportation Security Administration (TSA) signifies the organizational structure of the agency. In TSA the TSO’s position was the entry level position who worked as screening units. The annual salaries of these TSOs are $25,000 to $35,000. There were approximately 760 TSOs. They are responsible for travel document checking, checking luggage through X-ray machine, metal detectors, monitoring the exit lane, tracking explosive devices, etc. For each or these duties LTSO is assigned. There are about 148 LTSO. They handle a team of TSOs. Then

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The Wal-Mart Effect - Research Paper Example Thought Wal-Mart does not manufacture its products, it attains economies of scope because it has lower average cost in selling one or more products together than separately, thereby offering competitive low-priced products. Some mom-and-pop stores, on the opposite, focus on one type of brand or product alone, which reduces their economies of scope, and they cannot lower their prices without affecting their margins. Moreover, Wal-Mart has large and numerous stores with different product types and brands that allow it to shape critical economic factors that can affect purchasing behaviors. Fishman (2006) depicted the swift expansion of Wal-Mart: â€Å"Ten years later, by the end of 2000, Wal-Mart had opened 888 Supercenters, an average of seven new Supercenters per month, 120 months in a row† (p.8). The more shops that Wal-Mart opens, the more it is able to keep its prices lower due to product and sales volume. Hence, economies of scope is a large advantage that small shops cann ot easily beat; hence, they can die or have died due to lower competitiveness in pricing and variety.Aside from economies of scope, large companies can gain economies of scope. Wal-Mart and other firms generate cost savings because of their size in the industry. Wal-Mart has economies of scale because the average cost of selling falls as the volume of products sold increases. It can negotiate with, though some critics would call it â€Å"force,† suppliers to sell goods to them at a lower price since they can purchase larger volumes.

Inequality of bargaining power in the music industry Essay

Inequality of bargaining power in the music industry - Essay Example The will theory of contract was founded upon the economic principle that the good of all exists in the pursuit of individual, selfish economic gain.1 The exchange between two parties is based upon the principle of â€Å"consideration† which Stone defines as â€Å"what one party to an agreement is giving, or promising in exchange for what is being given or promised from the other side.†2 But in truth, classical contract theory may not represent the true will of the parties, resulting in inequitable individual gains to one party3 and according to Baumann, â€Å"the role of the Courts is restricted to enforcing their [the parties] bargained for exchange.†4 As stated by Spencer Nathan Thal, â€Å"the freedom of contract doctrine sanctions every transaction, however unequal the starting points and however unequal the outcome.† Where the issue of contracts in the music industry are concerned, the common terms covered are exclusivity of use of material, duration and territories covering use, ownership, copyrights and the right to exploitation of the material6. Exclusive performance over large geographical areas for long periods may render a contract unconscionable for an artist, because as pointed out by Vetrone, most artists never get a fair deal from music and recording companies.

Essay on my Favourite Book Snow White

Essay on my Favourite Book Snow White Snow White was the heroine of the first full-length animated film, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, in 1937. Snow White is young, pretty, virginal, sweet-natured and obedient. She doesnt mind housework because she is sure that a rich young man will soon come and take her away. When Snow White is afraid, she runs away and falls down in tears. When she finds shelter in a dirty little house in the woods, she immediately cleans it from top to bottom. When she lives there, she continues to do the housework: the group of (small) working males who live in the house clearly need a mother to clean for them, so this is Snow Whites natural role. SHELTER is something that protects you and keeps you safe from weather or from dangers Snow Whites only enemy is her wicked and powerful step-mother. (Another typical Disney character is the evil older women, who has a lot of power. She is always destroyed.) WICKED: bad, evil A STEP-MOTHER is a woman who marries someones father after their mother died Snow Whites wicked step-mother tricks Snow White into eating a poisoned apple and she falls into a coma. The dwarfs cannot help her. Snow White must wait until she is rescued by the kiss of a handsome prince, and then she rides off happily with her new love. TRICK: (v) to fool or deceive When someone is in a COMA, they are completely unconscious and cannot be awakened This is typical of Disneys movies. Young women are naturally happy home-makers; they wait (like Snow White in her coma) until a man comes along to give them life. Something is TYPICAL if it has the usual qualities of a type of thing. After Snow White, Disney used other fairy tales for his movies, for example Cinderella (1950) and Sleeping Beauty (1959). The heroines and their stories were very similar to Snow White. FAIRY TALES: stories that are told to children about magical places and people Then, in 1966, Walt Disney died and the Disney Company did not produce any good animated films for a long time. Then, in 1989, the company produced a new, and very successful, cartoon feature film, The Little Mermaid. FEATURE FILM: a full length movie The Little Mermaid Ariel, the mermaid, is the heroine of the movie. It seems that Disney did not pay much attention to the Womens Movement: Ariel is the same as the earlier Disney heroines, except that she is somewhat sexy and wears a bikini made from shells. And the answer to all her dreams is to get her man. Ariel will do anything to make the prince fall in love with her. She even gives up her voice so that she can have legs. (What message does this movie give to young girls Keep quiet and be beautiful?) But Disney movies have happy endings, and so Ariel gets her voice back and she keeps her prince. On the other hand, she loses everything else. When she becomes human and marries the prince, she must leave behind her underwater home, her father and her friends. She gives up everything in her life for romance. Thats OK for a fairy tale, but it is not a good idea for young girls in real life. MERMAID Mermaid Many women complained to Disney about The Little Mermaid, and Disney promised to think more carefully about womens roles in future. They hired a female screenwriter for their next movie, Beauty and the Beast (1991). Disneys publicity people promised that Belle, the heroine, would be modern, active, and even feminist. SCREENWRITER: the person who writes the words of a movie Beauty and the Beast The press thought Disney had done a good job, but the only real improvement is that Belle likes reading! BELLE is the main woman character in Beauty and the Beast However, the most important problem in this movie is not the Disney companys idea of an independent woman. The problem is how Disney changed the hero, and the message of the story. In the original story, the Beast looks terrible and frightening, but he is really kind and gentle. The message of the story is that you should not judge someone by what they look like. An ugly outside can hide a loving heart. Disney changed this. The company decided to create a Beast with a very serious problem. Disneys Beast terrifies his household and frightens Belle, his prisoner. The Beast does not attack Belle, but the threat of physical violence is present. In the Disney movie, Belle changes the character of the Beast. Her beauty and her sweet nature change him from a beast into a prince, from someone who is cruel, into someone who is kind. So the movies message is very different from the message of the fairy tale. SWEET-NATURE: being kind and pleasant The movie says, if a young woman is pretty and sweet-natured, she can change an abusive man into a kind and gentle man. In other words, it is a womans fault if her man abuses her. This is another dangerous message for young girls because it is not true: if Belle lived in the real world, she would almost certainly become a battered wife. Someone who is ABUSIVE treats people very badly ABUSE: (v) to treat someone very badly BATTERED: badly beaten Aladdin Princess Jasmine, the only female character in Aladdin (1992), is a lot like Disneys other women. But there is another very worrying thing about this movie, its racism. Listen to some of the songs, for example: I come from a land. where they cut off your ears if they dont like your face. Its barbaric, but hey, its home. RACISM: the belief that people of your race are better than people of other races BARBARIC: violent and cruel And look at the characters. The evil characters, like Jafar, look very Arabic. On the other hand, Aladdin, the hero, looks and sounds like a fresh-faced American boy: his skin is much paler, and he asks people to call him Al, an American name, not an Arabic name. FRESH-FACED: clean and innocent. Something is PALER than something else if it is lighter-colored or whiter. Of course, Disney does not intend to offend people that would be bad business. Most people who watch the movies are probably caught up in the Disney magic and dont notice these things. But thats the problem. One way in which Disney creates the magic is by using stereotypes that people respond to without thinking. Aladdin looks right for a hero; Jafar looks right for a villain. We dont think about it. If you are CAUGHT UP IN something, you are very involved and interested in it. STEREOTYPE: a fixed image or idea of what a type of person is like. By using quotation marks [RIGHT for a hero], the writer makes clear that she means this ironically. The Lion King The Lion King does the same thing. The characters are animals, but their voices show racist stereotypes. Even though The Lion King takes place in Africa, two white American actors are used for the voice of Simba, the hero. However, the hyenas who are bad characters in the film, speak non-standard English and are played by actors like Whoopi Goldberg and Cheech Marin. The villain, Scar, suggests homosexuality. And, of course women (the lionesses) are weak and need a male hero: when Simba runs away, the lionesses cannot protect themselves from the evil Scar and must wait for years until Simba returns to save them. RACIST STEREOTYPES: a fixed idea of what people of different races are like. HYENAS: an African animal that feeds on dead animals; its cry sounds like a laugh. SUGGESTS HOMOSEXUALITY: gives the idea that he might be homosexual. Pocahontas After The Lion King, Disney became interested in the idea of multiculturalism and made Pocahontas in 1995. This movie mixes Disneys favourite story of the princess- in-love with a real story from Native American history. That is a problem because Pocahontas was a real woman, and she was very different from the Pocahontas that Disney invented. To give only one example: in real life, Pocahontas was a child when she first met the hero John Smith and there was no romance between them. When Pocahontas met Smith again years later, she called him father. MULTICULTURALISM: the idea that it is a good thing to include people from many different cultures. But there are even more serious problems with the Disney version of Pocahontas and the video follow-up, Pocahontas II. The movies ignore the real fate of both Pocahontas and her people. The first movie ends cheerfully with peace between the colonists and natives; in fact, many, many of the Powhatan Nation (Pocahontas people) were later killed. COLONISTS: the first groups of people who came from Europe to America, to settle and make a home for themselves IGNORE: do not show As for the real Pocahontas, she was kidnapped and held hostage. She was forced to become a Christian and behave like a civilised white woman. She was married to a colonist who believed that the civilisation she grew up in was evil. Later, Pocahontas was taken to England, to help advertise the colony of Virginia. In England, she was homesick. She became ill and died before she could return to her homeland. CIVILISED: from a more advanced society. The quotation marks around the word show that the writer is being ironic. HOMESICK: feeling sad because you are away from home None of this is in Disneys movie. And that is very worrying, because many people believed that they were learning about history when they watched Pocahontas. Mulan Disney has done a similar thing with Mulan (1998), the story of a Chinese hero. The real Hua Mu-Lan lived so long ago that her story has become a Chinese legend a legend that Disney has reinvented so that it fits the pattern of a young woman in love. LEGEND: a famous story about a great hero Disney created Shang, a male hero for Mulan. He is her commanding officer. In the movie, Mulan is wounded in battle and everyone finds out that she is a woman. Her punishment is death but Shang cannot kill her, so he sends her away. After the war he comes to find her and marry her. In the military, your COMMANDING OFFICER is the person who gives you orders. Disney has done it again. Brave, kick-boxing Mulan does not look like Snow White but, in fact, the life of a Disney heroine has not changed very much. Men still have power over them (Shang quite literally decides whether Mulan will live or die); and the best thing that can happen to them is to marry the hero and live happily ever after. KICK-BOXING: a kind of fighting that uses both punching and kicking.

Economic And Monetary Union Of Europe :: essays research papers

Economic and Monetary Union of Europe   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main reason for creating a European Market was the growing international competitiveness. In the mid of the eighties the European countries recognized that in the long run the national economies alone won't be able to compete against countries like the US, Japan and the new industrial centers in East Asia. The biggest advantage of the European integration is the unique chance of causing significant economic growth in the member countries by abolishing all kinds of barriers e.g. customs controls, trade restrictions, liberation of the movement of capital, tax harmonization, and by the opening of the financial market, a common trade policy, a common service market, common legal protection of companies and so on.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The two countries who support the European integration most (at least their governments) are Germany and France. One reason therefore might be that both countries have a dramatic increase in unemployment rate within the past few years. In Baden-Wà ¼rttemberg for example, the area where I am from, the unemployment rate has gone up from about 4% in 1992 to around 9% nowadays. Most likely Mr. Chirac's and Mr. Kohl's only solution concerning the unemployment is a fully integrated economy which for sure would create new jobs in Europe. The German population, however, is scared that a United Europe would create new jobs only in low wage countries like e.g. Portugal. Many think that a European market with no barriers would would even cause â€Å"job hollowing out† of Germany. Moreover the German population likes the strength of the D-Mark and is worried that a single European currency would be weaker. As a result of this many Germans change their money into Swiss Francs. So far Switzerland has done quite well by not taking place in all events available. One reason why they are better off is that they didn't take place neither in World War I nor in World war II and therefore didn't have to rebuild everything.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some people expect that in a Unified Europe the standard of living in the richer countries will decrease while the people in poorer countries will fare better. One professor of mine once said: â€Å"Somebody must pay for the European Integration. Most likely this will be the richer countries like us. It was the same with the German Unification†. This shows that even some very educated people in Germany are skeptical concerning the new Europe. The light poll at the last election of the European parliament seems to be showing that the German population is not that much interested in Europe. The average worker/person if living in Germany or any other European country is not

Is College for Everyone Essay

Going to College is a choice that everyone has. I think that College is for everyone because everyone in this world has a right to a good education. I know that good education will improve my chances of having a good job and a higher wage. But on the other hand, College is not free and mostly it is expensive. We have to pay for every semester, for the books and for some student loans and some students do not want to carry big responsibilities like getting into dept or paying loans so instead of going to College they just seek help from a master craft man. A Master craft man gives you a job and share his knowledge to you straightly to the point and without consuming a lot of time. There is also a chance of being successful like a master craft man even if you don’t go to College especially if you have better learning at a trade. But even though College is not free and it cost a lot, but I think everyone should at least try going to college because everything that you spend for College will get back to you ‘cause College will afford us more opportunity to make money for the reason that most of the highest paying jobs require a college degree. And knowing you earn a degree will undoubtedly give a lifetime of pride to yourself and to the whole world. College will make you an expert at something which you can share with others. Many social service positions like Doctor, Lawyer, Teacher or Scientist require a College degree and being able to help others means you have to educate yourself first through higher education. If you have a College degree, you will be able to support your family with a larger salary. You will be able to help your children with their homework and can give them a better future as a result they will be more likely to attend College. Otherwise, if you think you already have skills and expertise and if you think it is not better to spend half of your life in school then College is not for you. You can just improve your skills and expertise by yourself or by the help of others and you can apply to a job that you are interested in and at the same time to a job that doesn’t require a College degree. Like me, I am good at working with people, I love helping them and socializing with them however, it doesn’t mean that my skills and expertise are enough. I also want to work at the field of medicine so I should go to a University because there, I can get a Doctorate degree and I believe that my skills and expertise are not enough to reach my goals in life. Going to College will more improve our ability, flexibility, skills and expertise and will expand our understanding of the world and what it has to offer. You have more chances and choices at getting a good job by going to college. You will have a better chance to stay employed longer if you have a degree. I believe that College education is extremely necessary in our modern society. Jobs now are becoming increasingly harder to get, and with the increase of the uneducated population, having a College education will allow you to get most any job you apply for. However, people can still earn money even if they won’t go to College through jobs that don’t require a College degree like Web Developer, Medical Secretary, Teacher’s Aide, Hair stylist or House painter. Also, if you join an apprentice program and you are offered full employment when you become a journeyman you will get a good pay or if you already have a secure job and you are contented in the salary, you can survive even if you don’t go to College. But if the reason of not going to College is you can’t afford it, there are solutions; you can get into College through scholarship and student loans, or if the reason is you already have a secure job, then you can go to College at night because they are open about 7 o’clock in the morning to ten o’clock in the evening and also if you lose your job, at lease you still have a choice because you go in College and you got a degree. In reality and in most cases the more education we have, the more careers and jobs we can choose from and the more money we can earn. College is a proven pathway to greater awareness socially and academically. College will expose you to things that you will not find anywhere else. You will meet new people and you get to do amazing and new activities. College will improve your socializing skills because every day you will be able to socialize with different people from different countries with different attitudes and point of views in life. College will help you to be aware in your life and in the surroundings. It will help you realize what kind of society we have in this generation. In our generation, we have a watchful and judgmental society and because of that, College will open up our eyes, it will make us conscious and will make us think what kind of life we want to have in the future with this society, in other words, College is encouraging us to have a good educational background . Yet, Colle e will give us a lot of problems like having many projects, sleeping late because of homework, and dealing with strict professors also, managing schedules but I strongly believe that those problems are helpful to us. Through the problems that we will encounter at College, surely it will make us firm, stronger and will let us stand in our own and at the next time that we will encounter problems, it would be easier for us and more likely we can handle it in a right way. W will also be able to help people to solve their problems with confidence and knowing that through our College experiences, we learned to stand up and don’t easily give up. College will greatly prepare you to create and take the jobs of the future. College prepares you for the career you’re interested at and also it prepares every student in their way of facing life. Your experiences in College education make you stronger and help you grow up maturely and your manner of working is very important because it reflects what kind of educational background you have. Higher Education will increase our knowledge which we can use it if we already got a job. College open doors of opportunity and expands our horizons. I truly believe that education is valuable because education is our passport to the good future and education is the key to success. Everything can be taken away from us but not our knowledge and skills acquire through experience and education and I strongly believe that by going to College we will reach our goals and we will be able to live in a comfortable life.

Free Essays on Book Review

â€Å"A Time to Kill† This unique novel by John Grisham takes place in a small Mississippi town of Clanton. The book A Time to Kill is one of these examples based on racial tension and capital punishment. This book is a perfect representation of our criminal justice system from start to finish. This book has examples of police and court procedures. The book also portrays many of the racial stereotypes that people of the south faces every day. A little black girl named Tonya Hailey was walking home from the grocery store one day when she abducted by two white men- Billy Ray Cobb, Pete Willard. The two were driving a yellow pick-up truck with a rebel flag in the back window. The two rednecks tied her up and raped her and took every last bit of innocence from her. After they were done beating her they threw her into Foggy Creek where a black fisherman saw them. The poor girl was left for dead. It didn’t take long for the whole town to find out, and the two men were arrested by Sheriff Ozzie for the rape of ten-year-old Tonya Hailey. The girls father, Carl Lee Hailey was enraged with vengeance. Carl Lee met with Jake Brisance , a lawyer who helped his brother Lester in a case a few years back. Carl Lee asked Jake if he will be there for him. Jake not knowing what Carl was thinking agreed to help him out . The question is What would You do if someone did that to your 10-year-old Daughter. A few days later, after the arraignment, Carl Lee stayed at the courthouse and studied every part of it, and hid in the broom closet. At the bail hearing of Cobb and Willard, Carl Lee shoots both of them repeatedly until he is sure that they are dead. When he quits shooting, Carl Lee realizes that he has not only killed the two men that rapped his little girl, but also that he has shot a police officer who has been a life long friend. Carl Lee‘s action have torn what was once a quiet, Mississippi town into a war zone. ... Free Essays on Book Review Free Essays on Book Review â€Å"A Time to Kill† This unique novel by John Grisham takes place in a small Mississippi town of Clanton. The book A Time to Kill is one of these examples based on racial tension and capital punishment. This book is a perfect representation of our criminal justice system from start to finish. This book has examples of police and court procedures. The book also portrays many of the racial stereotypes that people of the south faces every day. A little black girl named Tonya Hailey was walking home from the grocery store one day when she abducted by two white men- Billy Ray Cobb, Pete Willard. The two were driving a yellow pick-up truck with a rebel flag in the back window. The two rednecks tied her up and raped her and took every last bit of innocence from her. After they were done beating her they threw her into Foggy Creek where a black fisherman saw them. The poor girl was left for dead. It didn’t take long for the whole town to find out, and the two men were arrested by Sheriff Ozzie for the rape of ten-year-old Tonya Hailey. The girls father, Carl Lee Hailey was enraged with vengeance. Carl Lee met with Jake Brisance , a lawyer who helped his brother Lester in a case a few years back. Carl Lee asked Jake if he will be there for him. Jake not knowing what Carl was thinking agreed to help him out . The question is What would You do if someone did that to your 10-year-old Daughter. A few days later, after the arraignment, Carl Lee stayed at the courthouse and studied every part of it, and hid in the broom closet. At the bail hearing of Cobb and Willard, Carl Lee shoots both of them repeatedly until he is sure that they are dead. When he quits shooting, Carl Lee realizes that he has not only killed the two men that rapped his little girl, but also that he has shot a police officer who has been a life long friend. Carl Lee‘s action have torn what was once a quiet, Mississippi town into a war zone. ...

6000 Processor Architecture

Analysis of the RISC System/6000 Processor Architecture Free Online Research Papers Analysis of the RISC System/6000 Processor Architecture As far as Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) systems go, IBM has played an enormous role in both their development and success. It was IBM who pioneered the path to RISC architecture and was the creator of the first RISC system, the 801, which led directly to the creation of the RS/6000. If it had not been for the groundbreaking work done at IBM’s Thomas J. Watson Research Center in the mid 1970’s, RISC architecture as we know it today, would simply not exist. RISC architecture was a major breakthrough in the world of computing, and perhaps, one of the greatest innovations to be developed in computer science in the second half of the 20th century. It allowed for the design of CPUs with a simpler set of instructions, with a simpler set of goals. The main concept behind RISC architecture was to make the instructions simpler in order to make the cycles per instruction decrease, which would inversely result in an increase in machine efficiency. Before RISC architecture, and quite possibly the inspiration that led to discovery of RISC, researchers began to notice that the majority of the orthogonal addressing modes-an aspect of the instruction set architecture that define how machine language instructions identify the operand of each instruction-were being completely ignored.1 What they also discovered was that this was decreasing the level of performance between the processor and main memory. The decrease in performance was also a result of the increasing use of compilers to create programs, as opposed to simply writing them in assembly language, which was common practice up until this point. To solve this problem, researchers came up with the idea of making the instructions in the instruction set architecture as simple and, therefore, as fast as possible. This concept eventually evolved into RISC, in which the goal was to create instructions so simple that each one could be executed in a single clock cycle.2 IBM’s drive toward RISC architecture can be attributed to many factors. The main catalyst for this advance in CPU architecture, however, was the increasing problem researchers were noticing with computer performance. Processors, even before the birth of RISC, were becoming faster at an exponential rate, while the advances in memory access were much less dramatic. This increased the need for researchers to find different methods to boost performance and overcome the gap that existed between the processor and memory. The goal IBM had for the original RS/6000, released in February 1990, was to develop a method to conduct very complex calculations necessary for scientific and engineering research. At the time, the supercomputers responsible for carrying out these massive calculations were extremely expensive. IBM’s main goal in the superscalar RS/6000 was to increase the performance of the CPU, while making the price of the unit more affordable. The main functional units of the RS/6000 will be covered in the paper. The branch processor of the RS/6000 is a bit different from the implementation of other comparable processors. The branch processor unit in the RS/6000 can handle one branch every cycle, like most other comparable processors. Additionally, it uses branch prediction to predict that any unresolved conditional branches will not be taken. What the branch processor does next is where it really differs from other comparable processors. The branch unit fetches both the branch-not-taken as well as the branch-taken path into the instruction buffers.4 However, it only dispatches the branch-not-taken path for execution. It is not until after the condition branch has been resolved that the instructions from the incorrect path are flushed from the instruction buffers. At this point, if the instructions have already begun to be executed, they are cancelled from their respective functional unit. The benefit of the branch unit’s method of branch prediction is that, at worst, the miss-prediction penalty is a mere 3 cycles.5 To add to the benefit, this penalty can be eliminated if, between the comparison and the branch, there are independent instructions. Another advantage in how the branch processor handles operations is the ability of the unit to restore state if it encounters an exception by maintaining a Program Counter stack. This method allows exceptions to be handled without any interruption in performance. Adding to the uniqueness and quality of the branch processor is the fact that it implements a special branch-and-count instruction that, in turn, decrements a counter register and then conditionally branches on the result, all in a single cycle.6 The Data Cache in the RS/6000 is a four way set associative cache with 64KB of total memory, allowing each memory address to have a maximum of four locations in the cache where it can be stored.7 The D-cache has a line size of 128 bytes and is split up into four separate D-cache units of equal size, leaving each unit with a total of 16 KB of memory.8 The D-cache communicates with main memory using a 4-word interface, the Floating Point unit using a 2-word interface, the Fixed Point unit using a 1-word interface, and the I-cache unit using a 2-word interface. One of the unique features of the D-cache is that it utilizes a store-back buffer which is also 128 bytes wide.9 This allows for better performance due to the fact that it cuts down on the traffic over the memory bus. As a result of the use of the store-back buffer, data that is stored in the D-cache does need to be sent directly to main memory. Instead, the data is only written to memory when a miss in the cache is replace d. This allows for the flexibility of leaving missed lines on the buffer while the new line enters the cache, so that you need not write the missed line to memory before a new line is brought in. Adding to the advantage of this implementation is the fact that the D-cache is not kept busy during the store-back process.10 What makes this process available at no cost to the efficiency of the D-cache and therefore, the performance of the processor, is through the method by which the line is loaded into the store-back buffer. The D-cache is able to implement this feature by loading the line in a parallel fashion into the store-back buffer, which is all done over a total period of two cycles.11 The other main feature of the D-cache is its use of cache-reload buffers to store, from memory, a line that contains a miss. What this means is that the processor need not wait for the entire line to be grabbed from main memory before it can access the cache arrays. Similar to the store-back buffer, the cache-reload buffer does not tie up the cache, so there is no performance penalty that must be paid to load the cache-reload buffer.12 A standard configuration of the main memory within a RS/6000 consists of two separate memory cards, although the system can hold up to eight. Each memory card can output two words of data to the D-cache due to a four way interleaved design.13 This means that the system must have at least two memory cards in order to accommodate the four word interface with the D-cache. The standard configuration of the RS/6000, with 2 memory cards can store up to four instructions and sixteen words of data. The four way interleaving design is implemented by two data-multiplexing chips and one control chip. The RS/6000 can hold from two to eight memory cards, with each ranging between 8MB and 32MB of total memory. This allows the RS/6000 to utilize anywhere from 16MB to 256MB of total memory. This total can be doubled, however, using the 4MB DRAM that are supported by the chips memory cards increasing the total memory on each card to 64MB, which in turn would allow for a total memory of a half a Gigabyte.14 The instruction cache in the RS/6000 is a two way set associative 8KB cache with a total line size of 64 bytes, 16 instructions.15 It delivers four instructions per cycle to dispatch, while continuously re-aligning them so that the farthest instruction to the left is valid.16 The I-cache is responsible for dispatching instructions to their respective units. The dispatcher selects, from the available instructions, the first branch, condition, and two fixed or floating point instructions. The branch unit, along with the condition unit, executes its instruction immediately after it receives them from the dispatcher. The two fixed or floating point instructions, however, are sent to the instruction buffers to await execution.17 Actually, in the RS/6000 processor, the fixed and floating point units are not at all affected by the result of a branch instruction.18 In most cases, the fixed and floating point units receive an uninterrupted stream of instructions resulting in a zero cyc le branch.19 The unique dispatch logic of the RS/6000 actually allows the fifth instruction in the I-cache to be executed by the branch unit. This allows the branch unit to completely overlap the fixed and floating point units in a situation such as a loop where there are an equal number of fixed and floating point instructions to be executed.20 All of the fixed point instructions in the RS/6000 processor are decoded and executed by the Fixed Point Unit. The Fixed Point Unit also decodes and executes floating point instructions of the load and store types due to the fact that these types of floating point instructions are actually just fixed point operations. Because of its control over load and store floating point instructions, the Fixed Point Unit fuels the movement of data between the Floating Point Unit and the D-cache. The Fixed Point Unit has undergone little change from the RS/6000’s RISC predecessor, the 801. The Fixed Point Unit contains the Arithmetic Logic Unit to handle the instructions involving arithmetic that are sent to the Fixed Point Unit. It also allows load and store instructions to overlap by executing independent instructions. This feature is made possible through the use of register tagging. The Fixed Point Unit (FXU) utilizes 32-32 bit registers a feature that remains the same from the original 801. Almost all instructions carried out by the FXU are completed within one cycle. One of the changes in the FXU from the original 801 is that it features a fixed point multiply and divide unit to handle multiplication and division. Due to the specialized multiply and divide unit, instructions involving multiplication take from 3 to 5 cycles. In contrast, any given divide instruction will take from 19 to 20 cycles, hindering the multiply/divide unit a bit.21 To handle address translation, data locking and page protection, the FXU contains a 128 entry two way set associative Data-Translation Look-aside Buffer (D-TLB). Additionally, page table look-ups for the Instruction-Translation Look-aside Buffer (I-TLB) and D-TLB reloads are performed by the FXU. The FXU also contains D-cache directories and controls; and, therefore, any address generation or D-cache controls for either fixed or floating point load/store operations are also performed by the FXU.22 The main reas on that the FXU handles address generation is to be able to accommodate the newly implemented multiply-add instructions that are executed by the Fixed Point Unit. In order for the multiply-add instructions to be worthwhile, data must be exchanged between the Floating Point Unit by a method that is not slower that the multiply-add execution time.23 Due to its unique implementation, in order to allow the processor the ability to wait for the right time to write an instruction into the D-cache, the data and address of one fixed point store instruction can be held up in the store buffers within the FXU. This feature means that both the FXU and the Fixed Point Unit (FPU) will receive their data in a timelier manner by allowing fixed and floating point load instructions to pass up the fixed point store instructions that were ahead of them in line.24 One of the biggest accomplishments in the RS/6000 architecture is its intuitive implementation of the Floating Point Unit. The Fixed Point Unit (FPU) in the RS/6000 contains 32-64 bit registers and has, in addition to these main registers, six rename registers for register renaming, and two divide registers to accommodate for floating point divide instructions. The FPU is a fully pipelined unit which allows one instruction to begin its execution at the start of every cycle. One of the most advantageous features brought upon by its unique implementation is that every instruction, except for divide types, has a result latency of only two cycles in the FPU.25 The FPU handles all of the multiply, divide, add, and subtract operations involving floating point instructions. Additionally, it computes a standard set of move, negate, and absolute-value operations.26 It will generate one double precision result for every cycle regardless of the various types of instructions in the buffer. This means that data held in the floating point registers is always represented in double-precision format.27 One of the highlights of the RS/6000’s FPU is its ability to execute a unique multiply-add instruction. What makes this feature key is the fact that these instructions, of the (A x B) + C type, are executed with the same delay as a single multiply or add instruction. The multiply-add instruction increases the performance of the RS/6000 exponentially by combining two instructions into one which reduces the number of instructions that need to be executed in a given program. This is made apparent in scientific and graphical applications that rely heavily on matrix operations that can utilize the multiply-add instruction. This instruction is also more accurate than in previous implementations of the instruction. This is due to the fact that the result of the multiply is not rounded before the addition takes place. Therefore, no accuracy is lost during the multipl y-add operations. In the FPU, the two word interface with the D-cache unit provides the required amount of transferability for every floating point instruction. Another prime feature of the FPU is its ability to fully overlap load and store instructions with the execution of arithmetic operations. It is able to perform these overlapping executions due to the use of register renaming. This function allows floating point loads to be executed independently of floating point arithmetic operations, enabling the FXU to perform floating point loads without having to wait for previous floating point arithmetic operations to be completed.28 In the RS/6000, input/output operations are handled through an I/O channel controller which undertakes the task of moving data to and from the main system memory of the computer (i.e. disk).29 The I/O channel controller creates a Micro Channel interface, which is a bus architecture that defines how peripheral devices and internal components communicate across the CPU’s expansion bus. The I/O unit incorporates a two word interface between itself and the system memory via a two word interface with the SIO bus. The Micro Channel interface establishes a one word address bus and a one word data bus out of the two word interface to the SIO.30 The I/O controller architecture focuses on better performance and error handling in the RS/6000. The I/O controller’s main task is to handle the exchange of information between the system memory and the Micro Channel interface. The processor can transfer data to and from the Micro Channel interface through the use of I/O load and s tore operations. On the other hand, the Micro Channel interface handles data transfer with the system memory through the use of DMA (Direct Memory Access) channels.31 DMA controllers transfer data from system memory directly to the Micro Channel interface without bogging down the processor. A feature of the I/O unit that provides extensive data security is the use of address protection mechanisms which provide secure exchange of information within all data transfers. The units I/O channel controller supports up to 15 DMA channels for improved performance over the original 801 architecture. A notable feature of the Micro Channel interface is the streaming data function. This feature enables more than one packet of data to be sent over the SIO bus within a single bus envelope. The Micro Channel architecture accomplishes this task by sending a starting address followed by a single block of data that contains multiple separate packs of data. This is an extremely formidable attri bute of the I/O unit creating a powerful performance boost due to the fact that it can double bandwidth on large transfers of data.32 The RS/6000 is a fully pipelined processor with several stages that execute in parallel across multiple functional units to handle the execution of various instructions. The first stage in the pipeline of the RS/6000 is the instruction fetch (IF) cycle. In this stage, four instructions are fetched from the cache arrays within the I-cache and placed into the instruction buffers. The second stage in the pipeline is the Disp/BRE cycle, in which a total of four instructions are analyzed for dispatching. Also in this stage, the branch and condition instructions are executed, the target addresses for the branch instructions are generated, and the two fixed point or floating point instructions are sent to their respective units to await execution. The third stage in the pipeline is the FXD cycle. In this stage, the FXU decodes the instructions stored in its instruction buffer and obtains the operands from the register file. The next stage is the FXE cycle where the FXU executes its instructions. In this stage the D-TLB’s and D-cache directories are searched for load and store instructions. The fifth stage in the pipeline is the C cycle wherein, the D-cache arrays are accessed.34 The WB cycle, which is the next stage in the pipeline, is responsible for writing fixed point instruction results to the register file. The PD cycle is the next stage in the pipeline, and where the FPU pre-decodes its instructions. Following the PD cycle is the Remap stage. In this stage the floating point instruction registers are mapped to the physical registers. In the next stage, the FPD cycle, the FPU actually decodes its instructions. The next two stages, the FPE1 cycle and the FPE2 cycle, are where multiply-add instructions are executed. The last stage in the pipeline is the FPWB cycle. In this stage, the results from floating point operations, except for load/store types, are written to the register file.35 Going through a cycle-by-cycle analysis of the pipeline, we start off with cycle 1, where the first four instructions are fetched from the I-cache. In cycle 2, the instructions are analyzed for dispatch, branch and condition instructions are executed, target addresses are generated, and the fixed point and floating point instructions are sent to their respective units to be executed. Also in this cycle, the next four instructions in line are fetched from the I-cache. The third cycle sends the next two fixed point or floating point instructions to their respective units, while the FXU is decoding the first floating point instruction and the FPU is pre-decoding its first instruction. Also in this cycle, the FXU will execute the floating point load instruction and the FPU will send the first two instructions to the PD stage for renaming.36 Additionally, another four instructions are fetched from the I-cache. In the third cycle, however, the four instructions fetched from the I-cac he include the BCT-a special loop-closing branch instruction-followed by the next three instructions in line. In the fourth cycle, the FXU will generate the address for the first floating point load instruction. The third instruction pair is dispatched to the FXU and FPU respectively. The FPU will rename the load instruction and the multiply-add. Also, the second fixed point or floating point instruction pair is in the FXD and FPD cycles. In the fourth cycle the address of the BCT is also generated. In cycle 5 the next four instructions are fetched from the I-cache, while the fourth pair of fixed point or floating point instructions are sent to their respective functional units. In this cycle the BCT is executed while the first FMA (floating point multiply-add) instruction is being processed in FPD. Meanwhile, the first floating point load is accessing the D-cache and at the end of this cycle, the FMA instruction will enter the FPE1 stage. In cycle 6, the second floating po int load instruction will access the D-cache while the second FMA instruction will be decoded by the FPU. Also in this cycle, the FPU is generating the address for the first store instruction, which will be placed in the store buffer at the end of the cycle.37 The advantage that the RS/6000 architecture gives to the performance of the pipeline is that the loop-closing branch instruction does not affect the performance of the pipeline whatsoever. In fact, the FXU and FPU operate completely independent of the Branch instructions. This allows the floating pipeline to remain busy throughout the different stages, allowing for two floating point results in every cycle.38 The RS/6000 has many architectural advantages over other comparable processors. Perhaps the biggest advantage of this processor is that of its Floating Point Unit. The FPU in the RS/6000 increases its performance greatly due to features such as the multiply-add instruction, register renaming, and its lightning fast two cycle pipeline. Another aspect that makes the RS/6000 desirable over other architectures is its simplicity in design. The computer designers at IBM left its organization open to mold to the constant advancement in processor architecture. An equally important advantage that the RS/6000 processor puts forward is its ability to process zero cycle branches which cut down on execution time and processor load immensely. Lastly, the fact that the processor has very fast exception handling and recovery is a huge advantage to the system. The disadvantages of the RS/6000, although not as many in number as the advantages of the system, can prove to be a performance bottleneck in some cases. The biggest disadvantage of the system is its inability to accommodate out-of-order execution. The processor does process out-of-order operations, but only involving accesses to the D-cache. Needless to say, it would mean better performance overall if the system was able to execute instructions out-of-order. However, the cost of being able to perform such a feat with the RS/6000 may be more cumbersome than advantageous. In order to implement out-of-order execution in the processor it would require more flexibility in the area of register renaming and an increased amount of logic, which, in the long run, may not be worth the added performance. Research Papers on Analysis of the RISC System/6000 Processor ArchitectureOpen Architechture a white paperIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfThe Project Managment Office SystemAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaResearch Process Part OneDefinition of Export QuotasStandardized TestingInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesThe Hockey Game

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